ConfucianismSources: [POLL Chap. 10], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianism], Confucianism is an ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (Kong Fuzi, lit. "Master Kong", 551–479 BCE). Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han Dynasty. According to [OM, Chapter 1] these actually predate Confucius. Ancestor veneration, sacrifice, and religio-political order were present during the Shang dynasty (1766-1050 BCE). Confucius came from impoverished nobility and it is unclear how he was able to educate himeself. Chinese emperors ruled by the Mandate of Heaven that was formulated by the first ruler of the Zhou dynasty when theey overthrew the Shang dynasty (around 1000 BCE). The first Zhou rulers were supposedly virtuous but by Confucius time they had been reduced to figure heads with local feudal lords fighting each other for power.Confucius wanted to bring back the "good old times." [LCS, Chapter 1]. The Five Classics (Wujing); Book of Changes, Book of Poetry, Book of History, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Book of Rites. The first three clearly predate Confucius and the other two also seem to predate him. [LCS, Chapter 1]. The main work of C is the Annalects compiled by his students, Confucius maintained that in order to have social order and effective government the "parent-child" relationship must be in order. Filial piety is emphasized and is a model for the relationship between ruler and subjects. The subjects are supposed to obey the ruler but the ruler must also care for his subjects. Ethical Principles [OM, Chapter 5]Li (ritual) is at the heart of C ethics: "the guiding principle of all things great and small." The actions of a self-cultivated person are Ren that is expressed through reciprocity (shu) and sincerity (zhong). Five Relationships: parent/child, elder/younger brother, husband/wife, friend/friend, ruler/subject. These put women down. "The ruler is like the wind, the people like the grass bending in whatever direction the wind blows" [OM, p. 57]. This view supports obedience to the ruler. According to [LCS, Chapter 2] Ren used to apply only to aristocracy but C expanded the meaning and imporance of Ren = human-heartedness. Ren and Shu (reciprocity). The latter implements the golden rule. Li is and ancient concept, but C gave it special emphasis. C also respected the Heaven deity and performed sacrifices. Note that lesser deities are the spirits of one's deceased ancestors. Confucian Principles - Five ConstantsRén (Humaneness)Ren is an obligation of altruism and humaneness for other individuals. Confucius' concept of humaneness is probably best expressed in the Confucian version of the ethic of reciprocity, or the Golden Rule: "Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you." In another instance, Confucius defined Ren as to "love others." Yì (Righteousness or Justice)Li (Propriety or Etiquette)Li is translated into English as rituals, customs, rites, etiquette, or morals, refers to any of the secular social functions of daily life, akin to the Western term for culture. Confucius considered education and music as various elements of li. Li were codified and treated as a comprehensive system of norms, guiding the propriety or politeness which colors everyday life. Confucius himself tried to revive the etiquette of earlier dynasties. It is important to note that, although li is sometimes translated as "ritual" or "rites", it has developed a specialized meaning in Confucianism, as opposed to its usual religious meanings. In Confucianism, the acts of everyday life are considered rituals. Rituals are not necessarily regimented or arbitrary practices, but the routines that people often engage in, knowingly or unknowingly, during the normal course of their lives. Shaping the rituals in a way that leads to a content and healthy society, and to content and healthy people, is one purpose of Confucian philosophy. Zhì (Knowledge)Xìn (Integrity).Confucian Principles - Four VirtuesSocial harmony—the great goal of Confucianism— results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the social order, and playing his or her part well. Zhong (Loyalty)Loyalty is particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the most important way for an ambitious young scholar to become a prominent official was to enter a ruler's civil service. Confucius himself did not propose that "might makes right", but rather that a superior should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. In addition, loyalty does not mean subservience to authority. This is because reciprocity is demanded from the superior as well. As Confucius stated "a prince should employ his minister according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness (loyalty)” Similarly, Mencius also said that “when the prince regards his ministers as his hands and feet, his ministers regard their prince as their belly and heart; when he regards them as his dogs and horses, they regard him as another man; when he regards them as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy.” Moreover, Mencius indicated that if the ruler is incompetent, he should be replaced. If the ruler is evil, then the people have the right to overthrow him. A good Confucian is also expected to remonstrate with his superiors when necessary. At the same time, a proper Confucian ruler should also accept his ministers’ advice, as this will help him govern the realm better. In later ages, however, emphasis was often placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled. Xiào (Filial piety)"Filial piety" is considered one of the great virtues and must be shown towards both the living and the dead (including even remote ancestors). The term "filial" (meaning "of a child") characterizes the respect that a child should show to his parents. The main source of our knowledge of the importance of filial piety is the Classic of Filial Piety, a work attributed to Confucius and his followers. The Analects, the main source of the Confucianism of Confucius, actually has little to say on the matter of filial piety. While the Classic of Filial Piety emphasizes the need of the child to pay reverence to his/her parents, the child should also not blindly follow his/her parents’ wishes. Jié (Continency)Yì (Righteousness) - one of the five constantsAspects of the Divine [OM, Chapter 2]Two main forms: (1) Focus on ordering principles (cosmic forces) that are subjects of contemplation rather than worship. (2) Deities and spirits that are worshipped. These include ancestors. ---- Discuss Dao here ---- Mencius/Mengzi (371-289 BCE) elaborated C's teachings proclaiming the original goodness of human nature and the right to revolt against a bad ruler. He defended Confucianism against Mohism, the philosophy of Mozi (470-391 BCE). Mozi was critical of filial piety and instead, he advocated universal love. Xunzi (298-238 BCE) offered an opposite view claiming that humans were originally evil and became good only through laws. His views formed the basis of Legalism, prevalent during the Qin dynasty [OM, ibid]. Following the official abandonment of Legalism in China after the Qin Dynasty (206 BCE), Confucianism became the official state ideology of the Han. The sixth Han ruler, Wu Di, made Confucianism China's official ideology (136 BCE) [LCS, p. 49]. At that period, interest in the nature of the universe was growing and the Han Confucians grafted yin/yang and Five Element ideas into their own tradition [LCS, p. 51] Nonetheless, since the Han period onward, most Chinese emperors used a mix of Legalism and Confucianism as their ruling doctrine, often with the latter embellishing the former. In other words, Confucian values were used to sugarcoat the harsh Legalist ideas that underlie the Imperial system. The disintegration of the Han in the second century CE opened the way for the spiritual and otherworldly doctrines of Buddhism and Daoism to dominate intellectual life at that time.
The imperial examination system was established in 605 CE (Sui dynasty) but traces of it can be found under the Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BCE). Confucianism declined after the fall of the Han dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE) losing ground to Buddhism and Daoism. It was revitalized in the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) to include metaphysics and methods for self cultivation and enlightenment [OM, p. 18]. These religions offered hope for the downtrodden masses. Confucius refused to even discuss life after death . During the period of disunity (roughly 220-580 CE) Buddhism and Daoism spread. These religions also appealed to the educated. The demise of the civil service exam (based on Confucian texts) also reduced the incentive to study Confucius. [SLC, pp. 54-56]. Confucianism started a come back during the Tang dynasty (618-907) because the new rulers felt that it would help ran the unified empire. The examinations were restored and were based on Confucian texts, although not exclusively. They also advanced the cult of Confucius although he was not worshiped as god, but as scholarly ancestor of the nation. Neo-Confucianism (tenth century onwards) developed a cosmology based on li that shapes qi, the vital matter that makes up everything. Qi is manifested in two forms: yin (dark, moist, inert, cold, soft, feminine) and yang (bright, dry, growing, warm, hard, masculine). All things consist if yin and yang in varying proportions. [OM, pp. 6-10] Five Phases: fire, wood, metal, water, and earth understood as metaphysical forces. Yin and yang and the Five Phases are the primal and cosmic patterns that inform human relationships. [ibid] Everything is united by the Great Ultimate Taiji (or Tai-chi). [OM pp. 26-27] Harmony with Nature. Neo-C introduced meditation. Spirits can help or harm people. They are envisioned as a vast bureaucracy, ruled by the Jade Emperor (counterpart of terrestrial emperor). Lowest in the bureaucracy is Tudi Gong (God of the Earth). Each neighborhood or village has its own Tudi Gong. The ideal of promoting virtuous officials carries to the world of spirits. Virtuous humans can rise (after death) in the world of spirits. Compare to sainthood in Christianity. The blending of Buddhism and Daoism into Confucianism helped make the latter a complete system of ideas [LCS, p. 63]. Neo-confucianism dominated China from the Song dynasty (960-1279) till the end of the Qin dynasty (1644-1911)! Its religious importance was re-inforced by the elaborate official sacrifices offered to Confucius [LCS, p. 69]. Mao attacked Confucianism but it was restored to favor by the rulers who followed him. In the 1980's they spent millions of dollars restoring his temple in his hometown Qufu [LCS, p. 93]. TemplesConfucianism has temples [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Confucius]. A Temple of Confucius or Confucian temple is a temple devoted to the memory of Confucius and the sages and philosophers of Confucianism. The state cult of Confucius centered upon offering sacrifices to Confucius's spirit in the Confucian temple. A dance known as the Eight-Row Dance, consisting of eight columns of eight dancers each, was also performed. Originally this was a Six-Row Dance, as performed for the lesser aristocracy, but in 1477 Confucius was allowed the imperial honor of the eight-row dance since he posthumously received the title of king. In addition to worshipping Confucius, Confucian temples also honored the "Four Correlates", the "Twelve Philosophers", and other disciples and Confucian scholars through history. The composition and number of figures worshipped changed and grew through time. Since temples were a statement of Confucian orthodoxy, the issue of which Confucians to enshrine was a controversial one. At their height, there are estimated to have been over 3,000 Confucian temples in existence worldwide. But there are no monks! Sacred Time [OM, Chapter 7]The yang (waxing) and yin (waning) phases of the moon underlie the calendar. The lunar calendar consists of 12 months with an extra month added every two or years. The solar years are organized in a twelve year cycle marked by the animals of the zodiac. On top of that there is 60 year cycle based on the Five Colors (blue, red, yellow, white, and black). Thus 2000 was the year of the White Dragon and 2012 the year of the Black Dragon. The Lunar new year marks the return of the creative forces of yang after the peak of yin during the winter solistice. |