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Buddhism

Sources: Chapter 8 of [POLL], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism], and the books by Levine and Eckel listed in the bibliography at the end of the section.

Buddhism is a non theistic religion that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha, meaning "the awakened one". According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha was a prince of the kingdom of Sakyas (in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent) and lived and taught sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering through the elimination of craving and ignorance by way of understanding and the seeing of dependent origination, with the ultimate goal of attainment of the sublime state of nirvana.

Buddhist accept many concepts and beliefs of Hinduism but not all of them. In particular, they reject the caste system and the Vedic literature.

The Buddhist emphasis is not on god(s) but in a way of life. Buddhism can be characterized as The Middle Way - between a life of pleasure and the ascetic life [Levine, p. 12] - "a mode of discipline that avoids the extremes of self-indulgence and self-denial" [Eckel, p. 8 and p. 44].

Two major branches of Buddhism are generally recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle").

Therevada dates from Buddha's time. It is the only one of eighteen rival schools to survive. It has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia [Eckel pp. 10-11]

Mahayana emerged in India about 2000 year ago and it is found throughout Northern and East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, and Tiantai (Tendai). It has its own body of scriptures and places emphasis on the importance of lay people.[Eckel pp. 10-11]

Tantric Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana and appeared in the seventh century CE. It emphasizes symbolism and ritual and it has visions of buddhas as "wrathful" deities.[Eckel pp. 10-11 and 17-18]. It challenges the traditions and it also known as Mantrayana (Vehicle of the Sacred Chants) and Vajrayana (Vehicle of the Thunderbolt). Mandala (sacred circle) is one of its symbols. It is dominant in Tibet and Mongolia.

The foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community). Taking "refuge in the triple gem" has traditionally been a declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path, and in general distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist.

History [Eckel pp. 13-25]

The Mauryan emperor Ashoka (268-239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and actively supported the religion and its spread beyond India in Sri Lanka as well as in Afghanistan and central India. One of the Greek kings of Afghanistan (Menander) is said to have converted to Buddhism.

Buddhism prospered in India during the 300 CE - 700 CE period but by the 1200's it had lost appeal, partly because of integration with Hinduism. Muslim invaders destroyed the last major monasteries by the end of the 1200's.

It entered China about 2000 years ago and from there it spread to Korea (4th century CE) and to Japan (6th century CE). One influencial Chinese form of Buddhism is Chan Buddhism that emphasizes meditation (In Sanskrit Dhyana). This was founded by the monk Huineng (638-713 CE) and it was introdued to Japan in the 13th cenury CE. In Japanese it is called Zen Buddhism.

It spread to Tibet in two waves: seventh century and end of tenth century. The first Dalai-Lama (1391-1475) had only religious authority and did not have yet that title. The title (meaning Ocean of Wisdom Teacher) was bestowed on the third leader by a Mongol chief. The fifth Dalai Lama (1617-1682) assumed secular power. The current Dalai Lama (born in 1935) is the fourteenth.

Buddhist Concepts

Samsara is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings' grasping and fixating on a self and experiences. Samsara arises out of avidya (ignorance) and is characterized by dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction). In the Buddhist view, liberation from samsara is possible by following the Buddhist path.

Karma (from Sanskrit: "action, work") is the force that drives samsara—the cycle of suffering and rebirth for each being. Good, skillful deeds and bad, unskillful actions produce "seeds" in the mind that come to fruition either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth. The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions is called sila (from Sanskrit: "ethical conduct"). In Buddhism, karma specifically refers to those actions of body, speech or mind that spring from mental intent ("cetana"), and bring about a consequence or fruit, (phala) or result (vipaka). Eckel (p. 59) calls Karma moral retribution.

Dharma means "cosmic law and order", but is also applied to the teachings of the Buddha.

In Theravada Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one's karma, since it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe. Mahayana Buddhism claims that the recitation or merely the hearing of their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma. Some forms of Buddhism (for example, Vajrayana) regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off of previous negative karma. The Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin taught that Amida Buddha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in samsara.

Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception to death. Buddhism rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in Hinduism and Christianity. According to Buddhism there ultimately is no such thing as a self independent from the rest of the universe (the doctrine of anatta). Rebirth in subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a dynamic, ever-changing process of "dependent arising" ("pratityasamutpada") determined by the laws of cause and effect (karma) rather than that of one being, transmigrating or incarnating from one existence to the next.

The Four Noble Truths

The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as central to the teachings of Buddhism, and are said to provide a conceptual framework for Buddhist thought. These four truths explain the nature of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness), its causes, and how it can be overcome. The four truths are [Levine, pp. 19-20].

1. The truth of Dukkha (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness)
2. The truth of Tanha (Craving) that is the origin of Dukkha
3. The truth of Nirvana (Liberation from Dukkha)
4. The truth of the Magga (eightfold path) leading to the cessation of dukkha

The first truth explains the nature of dukkha. Dukkha is commonly translated as “suffering”, “anxiety”, “unsatisfactoriness”, “unease”, etc., and it is said to have the following three aspects:

• The obvious suffering of physical and mental illness, growing old, and dying.
• The anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing.
• A subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life, due to the fact that all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance. On this level, the term indicates a lack of satisfaction, a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.

The second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known. Within the context of the four noble truths, the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving (Pali: tanha) conditioned by ignorance (Pali: avijja). On a deeper level, the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance (Pali: avijja) of the true nature of things. The third noble truth is that the complete cessation of dukkha is possible.

The Noble Eightfold Path [Levine, pp. 20-21]

The Noble Eightfold Path—the fourth of the Buddha's Noble Truths—consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the cessation of dukkha.

1. Right Understanding (Wisdom)
2. Right Thoughts (Wisdom)
3. Right Speech (Ethical conduct)
4. Right Action (Ethical conduct)
5. Right Livelihood (Ethical conduct)
6. Right Effort (Ethical conduct)
7. Right Mindfulness (Concentration)
8. Right Meditation (Concentration)

Note that there is no mention of Atman in the four noble truths. Nirvana is attained not by communing with Atman, but by "calming the lake." There is also no mention of re-incarnation in the four noble truths. Buddhism does not need the concept of god!

However, many Buddhist teachings center on re-incarnation [Eckel, Chapter 8 Death and Afterlife, pp. 88-90 and 95].

Diet

In Buddhism, the views on vegetarianism vary from school to school.

According to the Theravada school, the Buddha allowed his monks to eat pork, chicken and beef if the monk was aware that the animal was not killed on their behalf. Theravada also believes that the Buddha allowed the monks to choose a vegetarian diet, but only prohibited them from eating human, elephant, horse, dog, cat, lion, tiger, bear, leopard, and slug flesh. According to Theravada, the Buddha did not prohibit any kind of meat-eating for his lay followers.

In Vajrayana, the act of eating meat is not always prohibited. The Mahayana schools generally recommend a vegetarian diet, for some believe that the Buddha insisted that his followers should not eat the flesh of any sentient being. Monks of the Mahayana traditions that follow the Brama Net Sutra are forbidden by their vows from eating flesh of any kind.

Practices

Mahayana has, in effect, deities or "saints": celestial buddhas [Eckel, p. 28-32]. Buddhist may make offerings to Buddha at stupas (shrines) like Hindus do to their deities [Eckel, p. 66]

Meditation and mindfulness of one's breathing: "calm the mind, diminish harmful emotions and become more fully aware of the flow of reality that makes up the self and the world" {Eckel p. 60, also 62-63].

Buddhist funerals emphasize rebirth [Eckel p. 92-93] and as a result they are popular in Japan, even among people who are not practicing Buddhists.

Politics

While some Buddhists are pacifists this is not a Buddhist concept. The Japanese warrior class, the Samurai, were Zen Buddhists.

Tibet is a Buddhist theocratic state, ruled by the Dalai-Lama.

Buddhists are active in politics, for example the Burmese (woman) Aung San Sun Kyi.

Contrast with Christianity and Islam

In theory, Buddhism focuses on individual behavior rather than ritual. Think of it as philosophy of life (but see Appendix)

Bibliography

Marvin Levine The Positive Psychology of Buddhism and Yoga, Rutledge, 2009.

Malcolm David Eckel Buddhism, Oxford Univ. Press, 2002.

Appendix: Celestial Buddhas [Eckel, Chapter 2]

Mahayana has celestial buddhas and bodhisattvas (buddhas to be) who guide the true believers to salvation. According to Mahayana, Gautama was simply an incarnation of a celestial Buddha. The compassion of these deities is invoked by pronouncing mantras. Om is the sacred sound from which the universe was created (p. 29).

There have been messianic movements expecting the imminent arrival of bodhisattva to transfrom society according to Buddhist principles. In Chinese is called Mile Fo (fo=buddha)

Amitabha (Infinite light) Buddha is the most important celestial. He is called Amituo Fo in China and Amida Butsu (butsu=buddha) in Japan. According to the Japanese "True Pure Land Sect" (founded in the 13th century CE) salvation depends only on the grace of Amida rather on one's own efforts (p. 32).

The Sun Buddha (Vairochana) is the central Buddha of the mandalas with four other Buddhas occupying the corners (Amida in the west).

Local deities may also be worshiped within Buddhism. Thus the Japanese sun godess Amaterasu is identified with Vairochana. The acceptance of local deities should be contrasted to the attitudes of Christianity and Islam.