Hinduism

Hinduism is the dominant religion of the Indian subcontinent and it is probably the oldest religion in the world. Buddhism has its roots in Hinduism and it helps to study the latter in order to better understand the former. Over 700 million people consider themselves Hindus and there are differences in beliefs and practices, so there are exceptions in many of statements of this short article based on [POLL, Chapter 7] and the Wikipedia article [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism]. Anyway, in the interest of brevity the discussions in this article are often an oversimplification of the Hindu beliefs. See the works cited at the end for more accurate information.

Hinduism encompasses the ancient beliefs of India with thousands of deities and in that way is similar to the old Greek and Roman polytheistic religions. There is no prophet or founder of the religion. There is no formal conversion process (see below). One is just born a Hindu. However, in contrast to the Greek and Roman religions, there are numerous rules of conduct so that Hinduism may be called a way of life. Another difference with the old western religions is that Hinduism has Holy Books. The oldest one is the Veda (knowledge) written in Sanskrit around 1500 BCE and is "considered to be creation of neither human or god" [POLL, p. 89]. Other important holy books are the Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gita. Also the Puranas, Manusmriti, and Agamas

It is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, and atheism among others and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (i.e., involving devotion to a single god while accepting the existence of others), but any such term is an overgeneralization. [wiki].

There are no bishops or state imposed orthodoxy in Hinduism.

There is no formal process for converting to Hinduism, although in many traditions a ritual called diksha ("initiation") marks the beginning of spiritual life. A ritual called shuddhi ("purification") sometimes marks the return to spiritual life after reconversion. Many Hindu sects do not actively seek converts, as they believe that the goals of spiritual life can be attained through any religion, as long as it is practiced sincerely.

Beliefs

Karma translates literally as action, work, or deed, and can be described as the "moral law of cause and effect". According to the Upanishads an individual, known as the jiva-atma, develops sanskaras (impressions) from actions, whether physical or mental. The linga sharira, a body more subtle than the physical one but less subtle than the soul, retains impressions, carrying them over into the next life, establishing a unique trajectory for the individual. Thus, the concept of a universal, neutral, and never-failing karma intrinsically relates to reincarnation as well as to one's personality, characteristics, and family. Karma binds together the notions of free will and destiny. [wiki]

Dharma signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and ‘‘right way of living." [wiki] In brief, Dharma is one's station in life and the functions associated with it. It can also be expressed as the path of righteousness. Good Dharma leads to good Karma.

Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul — the true "self" of every person, called the atman — is eternal. According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism, this Atman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. (Hence, these schools are called non-dualist. The goal of life, according to the Advaita school, is to realize that one's atman is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.) Dualistic schools understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality, and they worship him or her thus, as Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva, or Shakti, depending upon the sect. [wiki]

Reincarnation

This cycle of action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is a continuum called samsara. The notion of reincarnation and karma is a strong premise in Hindu thought. The Bhagavad Gita states:

As a person puts on new clothes and discards old and torn clothes,
similarly an embodied soul enters new material bodies, leaving the old bodies.

Samsara provides ephemeral pleasures, which lead people to desire rebirth so as to enjoy the pleasures of a perishable body. However, escaping the world of samsara through moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace. It is thought that after several reincarnations, an atman eventually seeks unity with the cosmic spirit (Brahman/Paramatman). [wiki]

"The atman is dependent on God, while moksha depends on love towards God and on God's grace." [wiki]

Deities

Hindu epics and the Puranas relate several episodes of the descent of God to Earth in corporeal form to restore dharma to society and to guide humans to moksha. Such an incarnation is called an Avatar. The main Hindu god is Vishnu, the protector, who may appear in one of ten avatars. The most prominent avatars are Rama (the protagonist in Ramayana) and Krishna (a central figure in the epic Mahabharata).

Other major deities include Brahma (not to be confused with Brahman) and Shiva. Brahma is depicted with four arms and four faces. Shiva is the destroyer but also the savior. He is depicted wearing a neclace of skulls.

The Hindu scriptures refer to celestial entities called Devas (or devi in feminine form; devata used synonymously for Deva in Hindi), "the shining ones", which may be translated into English as "gods" or "heavenly beings". The devas are an integral part of Hindu culture and are depicted in art, architecture and through icons, and mythological stories about them are related in the scriptures, particularly in Indian epic poetry and the Puranas. They are, however, often distinguished from Ishvara, a supreme personal god, with many Hindus worshiping Ishvara in one of its particular manifestations (ostensibly separate deities) as their ista devata, or chosen ideal. The choice is a matter of individual preference, and of regional and family traditions.

Practices

The Caste System (Varna)

There are four major castes: Brahmins (priests, scholars and teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors , administrators and law enforcers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle raisers and merchants), and Shudras (service providers and artisans - craftspeople). Below them were the Dalit (downtrodden), the untouchables that did all the dirty work. The four major castes are further subdivided into Jatis of which there are thousands. Jatis are endogamous groups. This system was legally abolished circa 1950 but it has not gone away.

History [wiki]: The caste system developed late, circa 600-1000 CE. The early medieval Puranas (sacred texts) were composed to disseminate religious mainstream ideology among the pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation. With the breakdown of the Gupta empire, gifts of virgin waste-land were heaped on brahmanas to ensure profitable exploitation of land owned by the kings, but also to provide status to the new ruling classes. Brahmanas spread further over India, interacting with local clans with different religions and ideologies. The Brahmanas used the Puranas to incorporate those clans into the agrarical society and its accompanying religion and ideology. Local chiefs and peasants were absorbed into the caste system, which was used to keep "control over the new kshatriyas and shudras. The Brahmanic caste was enlarged by incorporating local subgroups, such as local priets. This also lead to a stratification within the Brahmanic caste, with some Brahmins having a lower status than other Brahmins. The use of caste worked better with the new Puranic Hinduism than with the shramanic sects. The Puranic texts provided extensive genealogies which gave status to the new kshatriyas.

Yoga

Yoga is the physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India with a view to attain a state of permanent peace. It dates from around 500 BCE. Hatha yoga is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts of Hinduism.

Dietary Rules

In ancient times Hinduism allowed for animal sacrifices but they were eventually abandoned. The followinf is a quote from a source written in the 3rd century BCE: "If a beast slain in Jyotistoma rite will itself go to heaven, why then does not the sacrificer forthwith offer his own father."

Many Hindus embrace vegetarianism to respect higher forms of life. Estimates of the number of lacto vegetarians in India (includes adherents of all religions) vary between 20% and 42%. The food habits vary with the community and region: for example, some castes having fewer vegetarians and coastal populations relying on seafood. Some avoid meat only on specific holy days. Observant Hindus who do eat meat almost always abstain from beef. The cow in Hindu society is traditionally identified as a caretaker and a maternal figure, and Hindu society honours the cow as a symbol of unselfish giving. Cow-slaughter is legally banned in almost all states of India.

Monasticism

Some Hindus choose to live a monastic life (Sannyasa) in pursuit of liberation or another form of spiritual perfection. Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God. The origins of sanyasis or Hindu mendicants is believed to be in the Vedic period, before 500 BCE. Therefore Hindu monasticism predates Middle Eastern monasticism and the latter may have been influnced by the former. Ancient Greek writers refer to Gymnosophists ("naked philosophers") certain ancient Indian philosophers who pursued asceticism to the point of regarding food and clothing as detrimental to purity of thought (sadhus or yogis). There are accounts of Alexander's encounter with them.

Unlike monks and nuns in the Western world, whose lives are in the main regulated by a monastery or an abbey and its rules, it is common for Hindu sannyasis to be solitary wanderers (parivrajaka). Hindu monasteries (mathas) never have a large number of monks living under one roof at any given time; they exist primarily for educational purposes and have become centers of pilgrimage for the lay population. Ordination into any Hindu monastic order is purely at the discretion of the individual guru, who should himself be an ordained sannyasi within that order.

The Ten Niyamas - Observances or Practices in Hinduism

The ten traditional Niyamas are:

1. Hri: remorse, being modest and showing shame for misdeeds;
   
2. Santosha: contentment; being satisfied with the resources at hand - therefore not desiring more;
   
3. Dana: giving, without thought of reward;
   
4. Astikya: faith, believing firmly in the teacher, the teachings and the path to enlightenment;
   
5. Ishvarapujana: worship of the Lord, the cultivation of devotion through daily worship and meditation, the return to the source;
   
6. Siddhanta shravana: scriptural listening, studying the teachings and listening to the wise of one's lineage;
   
7. Mati: cognition, developing a spiritual will and intellect with the guru's guidance;
   
8. Vrata: sacred vows, fulfilling religious vows, rules and observances faithfully;
   
9. Japa: recitation, chanting mantras daily;
   
10. Tapas: the endurance of the opposites; hunger and fullness, thirsty and quenched, hot and cold, standing and sitting etc.

In another tradition the Niyamas are five:

1. Shauda: purity;
   
2. Santosha (same as No. 2 above);
   
3. Tapas (same as No. 10 above);
   
4. Svadhayaya: Self study;
   
5. Ishvarapujan (same as No. 5 above);

[http://hinduism.about.com/od/basics/ss/ten_niyamas.htm]
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niyama]

Conclusions

Hinduism is an example of a religion where polytheism was supplemented with rules for living beyond the basic moral imperatives (do not kill, etc). However, the rituals of worship remained paramount.

The caste system eliminated social mobility and the belief in reincarnation fostered tolerance of current conditions; one would be rewarded in his/hers next life. Both helped the stability of the social and political system and, indeed, there are no records of social upheavals in the last thousand years of Indian history. It is also made it easy for a conqueror (the British) to rule the country.

According to some commentators charity is not a key duty in Hinduism and its appearance in the Niyamas may be the result of Muslim and Christian influences.

Some books on Hinduism